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肿瘤免疫在希望之光中前行:当前药物研发的机制、策略及方法

2016-07-17 汤森路透 汤森路透生命科学与制药

毋庸置疑,肿瘤免疫是当下的热点之一。肿瘤免疫药物在2015年的销售额已经达到25亿美金,销售贡献主要来自于Keytruda(pembrolizumab,默沙东)和Opdivo(nivolumab,百时美施贵宝),根据BioWorld报道,近期他塔夫茨药物开发研究中心的一份报告预测在2020年销售额将高达400亿美金。根据塔夫茨药物开发研究中心的发现,全球药物开发公司中大公司和小型的生物制药公司



毋庸置疑,肿瘤免疫是当下的热点之一。

肿瘤免疫药物在2015年的销售额已经达到25亿美金,销售贡献主要来自于Keytruda(pembrolizumab,默沙东)和Opdivo(nivolumab,百时美施贵宝),根据BioWorld报道,近期他塔夫茨药物开发研究中心的一份报告预测在2020年销售额将高达400亿美金。

根据塔夫茨药物开发研究中心的发现,全球药物开发公司中大公司和小型的生物制药公司之间的合作从2013年的6起上升到58起。合作金额从2013年的28亿美金激增到2015年的225亿美金,但由于部分合作并未公布金额,实际的数字更高。

参与该领域开发的不仅有盈利性的公司,大学和肿瘤中心也参与其中。根据塔夫茨的报告,仅在美国,13所高校和肿瘤中心已公布了和制药集团和生物技术公司的合作。

对于参与这个飞速发展的领域的机构来说,了解该领域的竞争格局,哪些机构在做什么,他们做到了什么阶段——至关重要。

免疫治疗的承诺

2015年,美国前总统吉米·卡特宣布他的肿瘤开始缓解。几个月前,这位美国总统被诊断出患有转移性黑色素瘤,这是一种致命的皮肤肿瘤,可以迅速散布到全身组织。在手术后,卡特总统使用了一种新获批的肿瘤药物,该药物是一种免疫检查点抑制剂,通过阻滞PD-1蛋白起作用。该药物和现有肿瘤药物机制完全不同,该药物通过引导机体的自身免疫系统来攻击和杀死肿瘤细胞。

这一波新的肿瘤治疗来的恰逢时机。目前肿瘤是美国的第二大致死原因,占美国死亡人数的1/4左右。美国男性的肿瘤终身发病率为50%,女性为35%。美国国立卫生研究院估计2010年美国的肿瘤花费为1600亿美金,直接花费为880亿美金,而在2008年美国肿瘤协会估计肿瘤对于整体世界经济的影响几乎达到9000亿美金。

肿瘤免疫治疗,指的是修复或增强身体的自身免疫系统来抗击肿瘤的一种疗法,被誉为治疗肿瘤的最有前景的一大进展。科学杂志将“肿瘤免疫治疗”评为2013年度突破以突出其在该领域的贡献。该类新型治疗手段与传统非特异性细胞毒药物相比更加精准。且在结束治疗后,能够持续产生抗肿瘤作用,因此与化疗相比该类疗法的抗肿瘤免疫响应更加持久。

尽管这个领域目前是研究的热点,其实利用免疫系统抑制肿瘤进展最早可以追溯到19世纪90年代,当时William B. Coley观察到细菌感染与肿瘤进展往往同时发生,因此提出了一种理论即通过手术后感染刺激免疫反应可以帮助肿瘤患者更好地恢复。稍后他报道了成功开发了一种滤过的细胞和溶菌产物的混合物,利用该混合物来治疗肿瘤,但制备该毒素和其临床效果难以重复。然后在接下来的一百年该领域的进展几无停滞,直到近年来发现了肿瘤细胞的免疫逃逸机制。在此科学概念的引导下,研究者发现了数个蛋白靶点,最知名的就是程序细胞死亡-1(PD-1)和细胞毒T-淋巴细胞相关蛋白4(CTLA-4),更重要的是发现了作用于此类靶点的抗体,该类抗体通过激活免疫系统来对抗肿瘤细胞。目前临床医生在将这类药物与其他多种药物联用后的协同作用表现出了前所未有的治疗效果。

当然关于免疫治疗的研究不仅限于肿瘤。在肿瘤以外的领域免疫治疗也有一定进展。在感染、心血管疾病和糖尿病等的免疫治疗研究也在进行中。随着研究者在这些疾病中认知的深入,他们将可能在未来更好地调节免疫系统来对抗一系列疾病。

免疫系统

随着进化演变的免疫系统是人体对抗例如病毒或细菌等外界入侵者的重要手段。在肿瘤监视中,免疫系统的保护机制也发挥重要作用。在肿瘤的初期免疫系统往往能成功抑制肿瘤的发生和发展;然而随着病情的发展,一些肿瘤细胞能够成功逃脱免疫系统的监控从而导致疾病的进展。下面的内容是对免疫系统的一个概述,读者也可以参阅参考文献中的优秀综述中得到更详实的资料。

当正常细胞周期被破坏的时候,免疫系统就开始发挥作用。该破坏作用可能源自于细胞外部(例如感染性疾病)或者细胞内部(例如在许多肿瘤中)。这些被破坏的细胞分裂速度比凋亡速度快,导致了异常生长或者肿瘤。而这也接着导致了需要被降解清除出胞外或需被破坏的蛋白过度表达。这些小抗原片段通过“主要组织相容复合体(MHC)”表达在细胞表面。抗原通过与某些细胞毒T淋巴细胞表明的特定受体结合诱导免疫反应,该过程导致CD4+或CD8+细胞倍增,随后开启了最终杀死被改造或被感染的肿瘤细胞的程序。免疫调节程序会持续的检查免疫系统并在免疫反应损伤健康的细胞前将其关闭。值得一提的是细胞毒T细胞的受体对于每一个特定抗原的具有特定的受体。因此保证免疫系统不会被过度激活。在感染消退之后,一群名为记忆T细胞留在循环中,预防同样的感染或肿瘤变异发生。

肿瘤免疫途径

免疫系统的确尽力去抗击肿瘤,然而肿瘤发展了多种多样的策略来防止被免疫系统侦查和消灭。随着肿瘤免疫治疗的快速发展,它的重大突破在于用多种新策略利用免疫系统来抗击肿瘤,包括阻止肿瘤逃逸免疫系统、直接激活免疫系统或者增强免疫反应。主要免疫治疗策略,通常采用联用的方法,见表1,在后面会进一步详述。

产生免疫抑制的靶点

免疫检查点抑制剂

肿瘤细胞有其独特的技巧可以使免疫系统认为它们是正常的健康细胞。而这些技巧就包括对被称为“检查点抑制剂”这类蛋白的控制。

触发免疫反应对抗感染或肿瘤的过程中有两种相互作用是必须的。如B7或者CD80这样的“抗原提呈细胞”(APC)上的受体需和T细胞上的CD28受体(图3上面绿色标记所示)结合。另外,APC上的结合了抗原的MHC也必须和T细胞受体/CD3复合物结合(如图3中间绿色标记所示)。上述相互作用可以激活T细胞使肿瘤细胞增殖或被破坏。

另外一些T细胞表面的受体如同“刹车”,一旦它们起效,可以避免免疫系统的激活,这些受体就是我们熟知的检查点抑制剂(图3中红色标记)。有些肿瘤细胞很会利用这些“刹车”从而使自己逃脱免疫系统的攻击。抗体正是利用了这一原理,阻断这些“刹车”,从而避免肿瘤细胞逃脱免疫系统的攻击,对应在临床上则可显示出对这类肿瘤的明显疗效。全球首个获批的检查点抑制剂抗体是BMS公司的ipilimumab(Yervoy),正是阻断了CTLA4和B7之间的相互作用,使其在2011年成功获批用于术后4期黑色素瘤,除了黑色素瘤适应症,该单抗也在进行其他瘤种的试验并有与其他多类药物的联用试验。尽管Yervoy安全性相对较好,但仍有一些自身免疫或炎症免疫介导的不良反应被报道,这类不良反应可能与机体免疫激活相关。其他一些检查点抑制剂药物进展如表2所述。

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    2016-07-19 doctorJiangchao

    继续学学

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    2016-07-19 KarenCui

    肿瘤免疫是目前最火的领域了

    0

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    2016-07-19 lqvr
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    2016-07-18 doctorJiangchao

    值得阅读的文章 赞一个

    0

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    2016-07-18 doctorJiangchao

    好文章

    0

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    2016-07-18 doctorJiangchao

    继续学习

    0

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