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Ther Adv Med:肿瘤免疫循环中肿瘤的免疫逃逸机制和治疗方法

2022-09-06 小药说药 小药说药

免疫检查点抑制剂的应用(ICIs)彻底改变了各种癌症的治疗模式。然而,尽管在一些癌症患者中取得了成功,但仍有相当一部分患者对免疫检查点抑制剂没有反应。一个正常的癌症免疫循环是对免疫检查点抑制剂做出具有

一、前言

免疫检查点抑制剂的应用(ICIs)彻底改变了各种癌症的治疗模式。然而,尽管在一些癌症患者中取得了成功,但仍有相当一部分患者对免疫检查点抑制剂没有反应。一个正常的癌症免疫循环是对免疫检查点抑制剂做出具有临床响应的先决条件。只有当循环的每一步都被激活并正常运行时,免疫检查点抑制剂才会诱导有意义的免疫反应。

然而,激活的癌症免疫循环可能并不平等地存在于每个患者和癌症类型中。理想情况下,治疗应考虑癌症免疫循环的每一个步骤,并提供个性化的治疗方法,从而适应个别患者特定癌症免疫循环的功能障碍。

二、癌症免疫循环

癌症免疫循环包括启动临床有效的T细胞介导免疫应答的几个步骤:

  • 肿瘤细胞释放抗原

  • 抗原提呈细胞(APC)的抗原摄取

  • 通过淋巴管系统将APCs运送至局部淋巴结

  • 抗原呈递给局部淋巴结中的幼稚T细胞

  • 局部淋巴结中T细胞的激活

  • T细胞通过血流到达局部肿瘤部位

  • 肿瘤微环境中T细胞介导的免疫应答

癌症免疫循环的所有步骤都需要正常运作,以产生有效的免疫反应。在癌症患者中,癌症免疫循环可能受损,中间步骤产生障碍,并导致抗肿瘤免疫缺陷,从而引起癌症的发生和进展。

三、肿瘤抗原释放缺陷

作为癌症免疫循环的第一步,必须从死亡的肿瘤细胞中释放肿瘤特异性抗原。肿瘤特异性抗原在肿瘤细胞坏死或凋亡后释放,此外,抗原必须由APC捕获,主要是树突状细胞(DC),并运输到局部淋巴结,将抗原呈递到幼稚T细胞,从而启动T细胞。

在没有死亡肿瘤细胞的情况下,无效的抗原释放将阻止有效的抗原呈递和癌症免疫循环的进一步发展,从而导致T细胞对肿瘤细胞的无效识别。因此,如果没有抗原从肿瘤细胞释放,则不会产生T细胞攻击形式的免疫反应。这样,诱导癌细胞死亡的完整癌症免疫循环将重新开始,释放额外的肿瘤相关抗原,这将进一步重新启动癌症免疫循环,并加深肿瘤特异性T细胞反应。

经常观察到的高TMB与ICI反应之间的相关性,可以解释为在存在高突变负担的情况下,肿瘤新抗原的可用性更高。因此TMB越高,对ICI治疗的反应率越高。此外,抗原的结构,特别是抗原呈递机制,也会影响它们是否被APC吸收,人类白细胞抗原(HLA)结合能力会影响这一特定过程。因此,另一种免疫逃避模式是通过HLA成分β2微球蛋白的获得性突变或HLA等位基因的丢失分裂抗原提呈系统,导致抗原提呈和T细胞识别受限。

在治疗上,癌症疫苗接种是克服抗原释放和呈递不足的一种可能策略,目前正在广泛研究中。到目前为止,疫苗在原位癌或微小残留疾病中显示出一些临床益处。此外,联合化疗和/或放疗可能由于诱导凋亡/坏死而诱导肿瘤抗原的可用性。因此,化疗和ICI联合治疗在临床上比ICI单独治疗更有效。目前正在广泛研究联合化疗、放疗或其他疫苗接种策略的实施。

此外,其他新型免疫调节疗法如组蛋白去乙酰化酶(HDAC)抑制剂,其已被确定可增加PD-L1、主要组织相容性复合体(MHC)I/II类分子的表达以及癌症种系突变,从而提高基于抗原的肿瘤免疫原性。HDAC抑制剂已在B细胞淋巴瘤等血液系统恶性肿瘤中显示出有临床意义的结果,目前正在研究与ICI的组合,以促进免疫反应,并可能在实体瘤中显示疗效。

四、局部淋巴结T细胞启动受损

向幼稚T细胞呈递肿瘤特异性抗原会触发效应T细胞的启动和激活。重要的是,效应性T细胞和调节性T细胞的分布对免疫反应的有效性有着至关重要的影响。由于大多数肿瘤抗原来源于自身抗原,因此肿瘤特异性抗原可能无法被APC或T细胞充分识别为“外来”抗原,这将导致调节性T细胞而不是效应性T细胞的启动和激活。因此,这一过程必须伴随免疫原性信号,如促炎细胞因子(如IL-1、IFN-α、TNF-α)和共刺激因子(如CD27、OX40),以促进免疫,而不是导致对特定抗原的耐受。

此外,在局部淋巴结内,每个成熟T细胞的匹配T细胞受体(TCR)必须被激活。如果不存在匹配,也就是说,由于TCR序列多样性较低,则不会产生免疫反应。此外,免疫检查点阻断已表明会影响TCR基因库的多样性,从而在癌症免疫循环的这一特定阶段提高抗肿瘤免疫。肿瘤抗原-MHC复合物与TCR之间的亲和力在激活抗肿瘤活性中也起着重要作用。

过继性T细胞治疗是一种潜在的治疗方法,通过将转基因自体T细胞重新输入到患者体内,来克服效应T细胞活化不足的问题。以肿瘤表面抗原为靶点的嵌合抗原受体(CAR)T细胞在血液系统恶性肿瘤中已显示出显著的临床益处。靶向重组抗原特异性TCR的类似方法正在研究中。

双特异性或三特异性T细胞接合器(BiTE,TriTE)是内源性细胞毒性T细胞和癌细胞表达的抗原之间的连接体,细胞毒性T细胞和癌抗原的连续结合导致T细胞增殖,增强T细胞介导的免疫反应,并增加肿瘤特异性。目前,上百种双特异性T细胞结合器正在I–III期临床试验中进行临床研究。此外,与T细胞启动和激活有关的细胞因子和共刺激因子也可以作为治疗靶点。

局部淋巴结中发生的另一个重要免疫逃逸机制是通过额外的抑制性免疫检查点来控制T细胞的激活。CTLA-4抑制抗体ipilimumab可阻断CTLA-4,从而阻止其配体CD80和CD86在局部淋巴结中的相互作用。因此,T细胞激活的负调控和抑制被阻断,导致T细胞的扩增。

五、抑制血循环中肿瘤特异性T细胞的系统性因素

激活的效应T细胞必须通过血液循环到达局部肿瘤部位。然而,血流中的因素可能会影响活化T细胞的可持续性。由于癌症介导的骨髓生成,循环中中性粒细胞会增加。中性粒细胞可以通过分泌精氨酸酶、一氧化氮合酶(NOS)和吞噬相关氧化酶(PHOX)等抑制因子来抑制T细胞介导的抗肿瘤反应,这些抑制因子进一步产生活性氧(ROS)并抑制T细胞活化。升高的全身炎症标志物,例如中性粒细胞与淋巴细胞比率(NLR)和急性期蛋白C反应蛋白(CRP)与较低的实体癌的治疗反应和总体生存率相关。

因此,抑制促炎细胞因子可能是增强抗肿瘤免疫反应的一种可能途径。据报道,在临床前研究中,IL-6的抑制对抗PD-L1治疗的疗效有有益影响,目前IL-6抑制剂与抗PD-1联合治疗的I-II期临床试验(NCT04191421)正在进行中。此外,抗IL-1β抗体canakinumab,正在NSCLC患者中进行联合抗PD-1治疗的临床试验(NCT03631199)。总之,全身炎症分子的许多靶点正在进行临床前和临床研究,并可能在未来的免疫治疗中得到应用。

六、局部肿瘤微环境中的免疫抑制信号

在局部肿瘤微环境中,血管结构的组成和细胞因子梯度影响T细胞归巢的效果,进而影响抗肿瘤免疫反应。病理组成和激活的内皮细胞被证明会阻碍T细胞的有效流入。一旦到达局部肿瘤微环境,肿瘤特异性激活的T细胞面临多种免疫抑制因子。肿瘤细胞本身或肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞可表达免疫检查点,如PD-1/PD-L1、LAG-3、TIM3和TIGIT等,抑制免疫反应。

此外,肿瘤细胞释放的免疫调节分子,如吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶(IDO)以及细胞因子(即IL-6、IL-10、TGF-β),可以阻止有效的T细胞作用,甚至产生肿瘤内T细胞耗竭。肿瘤微环境中的调节性T细胞、髓源性抑制细胞(MDSCs)以及肿瘤相关巨噬细胞,特别是M2型巨噬细胞,可以增加免疫抑制和肿瘤细胞的逃避。

目前,联合治疗具有解决针对免疫微环境抑制肿瘤免疫疫逃避的潜力。联合化疗有可能增加肿瘤细胞上PD-L1的表达,从而提高对PD-1轴ICI治疗的反应潜力。此外,除了化疗,血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)与抗血管生成药物(如贝伐单抗或VEGF靶向TKIs)的联合抑制可能通过促进T细胞浸润到肿瘤微环境中来潜在地增强抗PD-1阻断剂的抗肿瘤免疫反应,目前正在研究中(NCT03396926,NCT04879368)。

靶向Wnt/β-catenin信号通路结合PD-1靶向ICI被认为可以改善T细胞启动和T细胞向肿瘤微环境的浸润,因为Wnt/β-catenin通路与树突状细胞、肿瘤相关巨噬细胞以及调节性T细胞浸润调节有关,其在早期临床试验中进行了测试(NCT01351103)。此外,免疫抑制性细胞因子也可以特异性靶向,如针对IDO(NCT03854032、NCT03915405)、IL-6/IL-6R(NCT04191421、NCT04691817)、IL-10(NCT03382912、NCT02009449)和TGF-β(NCT04429542),作为晚期实体癌的联合免疫疗法。

PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂联合抑制DNA损伤修复(DDR)途径的方法,如聚ADP-核糖聚合酶(PARP)抑制剂或循环蛋白依赖性激酶4/6(CDK4/6)抑制剂也是一种途径。因为功能失调的DDR被认为在激活宿主免疫系统中发挥作用。例如,PARP抑制剂可以通过激活STING途径增强抗肿瘤免疫,从而增加趋化因子的募集,并进一步诱导细胞毒性T细胞功能。

此外,肿瘤炎症微环境中的其他细胞类型,如MDSCs、肿瘤相关巨噬细胞以及肿瘤相关成纤维细胞,也可以靶向治疗,可能会改善产生的抗肿瘤免疫反应。

七、小结

癌症免疫循环的所有步骤都可能表现出功能受损,导致无效的中间过程,从而降低肿瘤特异性免疫反应。事实上,免疫逃逸和抵抗机制可能会导致无效的ICI阻断疗法。因此,需要针对地解决癌症免疫循环几个步骤中可能发生的功能障碍。个性化的生物标志物方法有助于识别特定患者的免疫循环障碍,从而采用有针对性的联合治疗。目前,许多有前途的新型免疫调节疗法的治疗策略以及它们的组合目前正在临床中进行研究,有可能在癌症患者中实现有意义的免疫应答。

总之,在未来,需要全面了解患者免疫系统与癌细胞之间独特的相互作用以及特定的潜在免疫逃逸机制,以指导癌症患者的个性化免疫治疗选择。

参考文献:

1.Immune escape mechanisms and therapeutic approaches in cancer: the cancer-immunity cycle. Ther Adv Med Oncol. 2022;14: 17588359221096219.

 

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  1. [GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=2111319, encodeId=974d2111319bc, content=非常详细!, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=75, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=9bc91795175, createdName=ms4510902310266068, createdTime=Tue Jan 24 14:36:03 CST 2023, time=2023-01-24, status=1, ipAttribution=广东省), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1716199, encodeId=c4871e1619965, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=82ce291853a' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#免疫逃逸机制#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=118, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=29185, encryptionId=82ce291853a, topicName=免疫逃逸机制)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=a12645, createdName=docwu2019, createdTime=Mon Jul 17 22:10:29 CST 2023, time=2023-07-17, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1399321, encodeId=426c139932195, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=cac364650c0' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#治疗方法#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=89, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=64650, encryptionId=cac364650c0, topicName=治疗方法)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=, createdBy=8cec2200006, createdName=showtest, createdTime=Wed Sep 07 11:10:29 CST 2022, time=2022-09-07, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1611720, encodeId=c12b1611e20ab, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=eb6b1145939' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#Med#</a>, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=104, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=11459, encryptionId=eb6b1145939, topicName=Med)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=null, createdBy=552a19396740, createdName=ms3994565386320060, createdTime=Wed Sep 07 11:10:29 CST 2022, time=2022-09-07, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1247398, encodeId=722e124e398e2, content=我关心的是麻醉状态下,肿瘤免疫联级是否受影响。, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=127, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=https://img.medsci.cn/20210703/5d4678ea36e146e4a5cc97581f3c5cfd/8cabb730d8f34a9db82e92bfd1b67ffc.jpg, createdBy=82281799739, createdName=ms2955258463467712, createdTime=Tue Sep 06 06:44:58 CST 2022, time=2022-09-06, status=1, ipAttribution=), GetPortalCommentsPageByObjectIdResponse(id=1247371, encodeId=fff2124e37111, content=<a href='/topic/show?id=8fe4828097b' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#肿瘤免疫#</a>循环中肿瘤的<a href='/topic/show?id=bbcb291830a' target=_blank style='color:#2F92EE;'>#免疫逃逸#</a>机制和治疗方法, beContent=null, objectType=article, channel=null, level=null, likeNumber=141, replyNumber=0, topicName=null, topicId=null, topicList=[TopicDto(id=82809, encryptionId=8fe4828097b, topicName=肿瘤免疫), TopicDto(id=29183, encryptionId=bbcb291830a, topicName=免疫逃逸)], attachment=null, authenticateStatus=null, createdAvatar=https://img.medsci.cn/Random/55971dc507c93968175ce7cc1e177b372a83869f.jpg, createdBy=f63e4754896, createdName=小小医者, createdTime=Tue Sep 06 06:20:40 CST 2022, time=2022-09-06, status=1, ipAttribution=)]
    2023-01-24 ms4510902310266068 来自广东省

    非常详细!

    0

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    2022-09-06 ms2955258463467712

    我关心的是麻醉状态下,肿瘤免疫联级是否受影响。

    0

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    2022-09-06 小小医者

    #肿瘤免疫#循环中肿瘤的#免疫逃逸#机制和治疗方法

    0

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